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FAMILARITY WITH INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

1) Chain or tape

2) Arrows

3) Ranging rods

4) Cross staff

5) Offset rods

6) Pegs

7) Plumb bob

Chain

The chain is composed of 100 or 150 pieces of galvanized mild steel wire,4mm in diameter called links .The ends of each link are bent into a loop and connected together by means of three oval rings. The ends of the chain are provided with handles for dragging the chain on the ground, each wire with a swivel joint so that the chain can be turned without twisting. The length of the chain is measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of another handle.

Following are the various types of chain in common use:

1) Metric chains

2) Gunter` s chain or surveyors chain

3) Engineers chain

4) Revenue chain

5) Steel band or Band chain

Ranging rods:

Ranging rods are used to range some intermediate points in the survey line. The length of the ranging rod is either 2m or 3m. They are shod at bottom with a heavy iron point. Ranging rods are divided into equal parts 0.2m long and they are painted alternately black and white or red and white or red, white and black. When they are at considerable distance, red and white or white and yellow flags about 25 cm square should be fastened at the top.

OFFSET ROD:

The offset rod is used for measuring the off set of short lengths. It is similar to a ranging rod and is usually of 3m lengths.

Cross staff: The simplest instrument used for setting out a right angle.

PLUMB BOB: While chaining along sloping ground, a plumb bob is required to transfer the points to the ground.

PRACTICING UNFOLDING AND FOLDING OF A CHAIN

UNFOLDING:

» Remove the strap of the folded chain and take both the handles in the left hand and hold the remaining portion of the chain in the right hand.

» Holding both the handles in the left hand, throw the remaining portion of the chain in the forward direction on the ground.

» Now the follower stands at the starting station by holding one handle and directs the leader to move forward by holding the other handle until the chain is fully stretched.

FOLDING:

» Bring the two handles together on the ground by pulling the chain at the center.

» Commencing from the center two pairs of links are taken at a time with the right hand and placed alternatively in both directions in the left hand.

» When the chain is completely folded the two brass handles will appear at the top.

» Now tie the chain with leather strap.

CHAINING A LINE BY DIRECT RANGING

Fix the ranging rods at the two given stations, where pegs are already driven on the ground.

» The follower stand behind station A and directs the leader, with ranging rod to come in line with AB by signals of ranging

» When the ranging rod comes in the line of AB the follower directs the leader to fix the ranging rod in position.

» Let the intermediate point be C which should be less than 20m / 30 m .

» Now the leader taken another ranging rod and stands between A and B about 2/3 distance from A

» The follower directs the leader to come in line of AB by using signals of ranging.

» As and when the point is located in the line of AB the follower instructs to fix the ranging rod in position.

» Let the other intermediate position be D which is less than 20 m / 30 m from B

» Now A, B, C and D are in one line.

Now the leader and follower measure the distance by measuring along A, C, D, B.

CHAINING A LINE BY INDIRECT RANGING

Fix the two ranging rods at the given stations A and B which are not intervisible due to raising ground.

» Select two intermediate points M1 and N1 such that from each point both A and B are visible.

» The person at M1 directs the person at N1 to move to a new position N2 in line with M1B.

» The person at N2 then directs the person at M1 to move to a new position M2 in line with

N2A.

» The person at M2 directs the person at N2 to a new position N3 in line with M2B.

» The person at N3 directs the person at M2 to a new position M3 in line with N3A.

» The process is repeated till the points M and N are located in such a way that M finds the person at N in line with AB and the person at N finds the person at M in line with AB.

» After fixing the points M and N, other points are also fixed by direct ranging and the length of the line is measured.

Result:

Length of AM = ____ meter.

Length of MN = ____ meter.

Length of NB = ____ meter.

Therefore distance of AB = distance AM + distance MN + distance NB

MEASUREMENT OF AREA BY CHAIN TRIANGULATION

Let ABCDE be the given field whose area is to be measured, fix the pegs at A, B, C, D & E.

» Divide area into three triangles ADE, ABD and BCD by joining AD and BD.

» Measure the lengths AB, BC , CD, DE, EA, AD and BD.

» Calculate the area of the triangles.

» The sum of the areas of the three triangles is the area of the given field.

FORMULA:

Area of the triangle Δ = √ s (s-a) (s-b) (s-c)

Where S = (a + b+ c) / 2

A, b, c, are the sides of the triangle.

RESULT:

The area of the given field = _______ Square meter.

CHAIN TRIANGULATION AROUND A BUILDING

Select three survey stations A, B and C such that from each survey station the other two stations are visible..

» Fix the ranging rods at A, B and C

» Fix the intermediate stations along the chain line AB, BC and CA by ranging.

» Measure the offsets of the corners of the building either perpendicular or oblique.

» Each point requires two measurements from two definite reference points on the same line or from two adjacent chain lines.

» Measure the points which are very far away from the main chain lines from tie line i.e , the corners points of building R and S. Measure the check line CD.

RESULT: From the recorded measurements of the building area is plotted.

PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

INTRODUCTION TO PLANE TABLE EQUIPMENTS AND ACCESSORIES

INTRODUCTION TO PLANE TABLE:

Plane table surveying is a graphical method of surveying in which field work and plotting are done simultaneously in the field.

The plain table consists of the following:

1. Drawing board mounted on a tripod

2. Straight edge called an alidade.

THE DRAWING BOARD:

The board is made of well-seasoned wood and varies in size from 40cm x 30 cm to 75cm x 60cm or 50 – 60 cm square.

The Alidade:

The alidade consists of metal or box wood straight edge or ruler about 50cm long. The be welled edge of the alidade is called the fiducially edge.

Accessories to the plane table

1. Trough compass

2. U – frame or plumbing fork

3. Water proof cover.

4. Spirit level or level tube

5. Drawing sheet

6. Pencil or eraser

Trough compass: The compass is used to mark the direction of the meridian on the paper.

U- frame or Plumbing fork:

U frame with a plumb bob used for centering the table.

Water Proof Cover:

Water Proof cover protects the sheet from rain.

Spirit level or level tube:

A level tube is used to level the plane table.

Drawing sheet:

The drawing sheet is fixed on the top of the drawing board.

Pencil and eraser:

A pencil is used for constructing lines and eraser is used for erasing lines after completion of the plan.

SETTING UP THE PLANE TABLE

The setting up the plane table includes the following three operations.

1. Centering the plane table

2. Leveling the plane table

3. Orientation of plane table

CENTERING THE PLANE TABLE:

The table should be set up at a convenient height for working say about 1m. The legs of tripod should be spread well apart and firmly fixed in to the ground. The table should be approximately leveled by tripod legs and judging by the eye.

Then the operation of centering is carried out by means of U-frame and plumb bob. The plane table is exactly placed over the ground station by U-frame and plumb bob.

LEVELING THE PLANE TABLE:

The process of leveling is carried out with the help of level tube. The bubble of level tube is brought to center in two directions, which are right angles to each other. This is achieved by moving legs.

ORIENTING THE TABLE:

The process of keeping the plane table always parallel to the position, which is occupied at the first station, is known as orientation. When the plane table is oriented, the lines on the board are parallel to the lines on the ground.

SETTING OF THE PLANE TABLE AND PLOTTING A FEW OBJECTS

(POINTS) BY RADIATION METHOD

INSTRUMENTS:

1) Plane table

2) Tripod

3) Alidade

RADIATION: The plane table is set up over only one station from which the whole traverse can be commanded. It is suitable for survey of small areas.

PROCEDURE:

1) Select a point “O ” so that all points to be located are visible from it.

2) Set up the table at “O”, level it, and do centering.

3) SELECT A POINT “O” on the sheet so that it is exactly over station “O” on the ground.

4) Mark the direction of the magnetic meridian

5) Centering the alidade on “O” BISECTS the objects of traverse A, B, C and D.

6) Measure the distances OA, OB, OC and OD and plotted to convenient scale to locate a, b, c and d respectively

PLOTTING BUILDING AND OTHER FEATURES OF THE COMPASS BY INTERSECTION METHOD

INSTRUMENTS:

1) Plane table

2) Tripod

3) Alidade

PROCEDURE:

1) Select two points P and Q such that the points (building corners) to be plotted are visible from their stations.

2) Set the table on P and locate on the sheet.

3) Pivot on P bisect Q draw a ray.

4) Measure the distance PQ and locate Q on the sheet to a convenient scale.

5) Now pq is known as the base line.

6) Pivot ‘p’ bisects the inaccessible objects A and B (building corners) and draw rays.

7) Shift the table to ‘a’ such that q is over Q and do temporary adjustments.

8) Place the alidade along qp and the rotate the table till p is bisected clamp table.

9) Pivot on q bisects the objects A and B and draw rays.

10) The instruction of rays drawn from P and Q will give the points a and b.

11) To check the accuracy measured AB and compare with plotted distance ab.

12) The same procedure is applied for other features of the campus. each point is bisected from two stations.

TRAVERSING ON AREA BY PLANE TABLE

INSTRUMENTS: 1. Plane table 2. Tripod 3. Alidade

PROCEDURE:

1) Select the traverse stations A,B,C,D,E etc on the ground.

2) Set the table on starting station ‘a’ and perform temporary adjustments.

3) Mark the magnetic meridian.

4) Locate A on the sheet as ‘a’.

5) Pivot on ‘a’ bisect the next station B and draw a ray

6) Measure the distance AB and locate ‘b’ on the sheet with a suitable scale.

7) Shift the table to next station B, set the table over B, and do temporary adjustments.

8) Place the alidade along ‘ba’ and bisect A for doing orientation of plane table.

9) Pivot on b bisect c draw a ray

10) Measure the distance BC and locate ‘c’ on the sheet with the suitable scale.

11) Report the same procedure at every successive station until the traverse is completed.

FORMULAE:

1) Area of a triangle = ½ * base *height

2) Area of a square = side * side

3) Area of a rectangle = length * breadth

4) Area of a trapezium = ½ * (a + b) * h

A, b are the parallel sides . h is the distance between parallel sides.

DETERMINING DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO INACCESSIBLE PONTS BY MEASURING HORIZONTAL ANGLE

EQUIPMENTS:

1. Theodolite

2. Chain / Tape

3. Ranging rods

4. Plumb bob

5. Stand

PROCEDURE:

1. Select a base line CD and measure CD accurately.

2. Setup the theodolite at C and level it accurately.

3. Measure the horizontal angles DCA and ACB each on both faces of the instrument and take their respective mean values.

4. Observe horizontal angles ADB and BDC on both faces and take the mean values of each.

5. Using the angles DCA, ACB, ADB and BDC of the distance, the required distance AB can be calculated.

6. The Horizontal distance can also be calculated by plotting the angles and obtaining the intersection points A and B.

DETERMINING AN HEIGHT OF OBJECT BY MEASURING VERTICAL ANGLE

EQUIPMENTS:

1. Theodolite

2. Leveling Stop

3. Tape or Chain

4. Pegs

5. Plumb bob

PROCEDURE:

1. Setup the instrument at station P.

2. Perform all temporary adjustments.

3. Bring the line of collimation horizontal

4. Enter the initial readings in the tabular form.

5. Swing the telescope and take staff reading over the given B.M.

6. Swing the telescope towards the object.

7. Release the vertical clamp screw, sight the top of the object Q1, and clamp the vertical clamp screw.

8. Read C and D verniers and enter the readings.

9. Release the vertical clamp screw, sight the bottom of the object Q, and clamp the screw.

10. Read vernier readings and enter in the tabular form.

11. Measure the Horizontal distance between the instrument station and the object.

12. The above procedure will be repeated with the face right observation.

13. The average of the two observations by transiting the telescope taken with different faces will be vertical angle.

14. Calculate the height of the top point Q1 from horizontal line (h1) and height of the bottom point Q0 from horizontal line (h2) by using formula h = d tan α

F o r m u l a

 h 1 = D T a n α 1

h 2 = D T a n α 2

.h = h1 + h2

References

User-Friendly Surveying Techniques for Location-Aware Systems

James Scott1 and Mike Hazas

Intel Research Cambridge

Lancaster University

james.w.scott@intel.com

POULTRY NUTRITION AND FEEDING

INTRODUCTION

1. Poultry Nutrition in General

A. Poultry – Any of the domesticated and commercialized types of birds used for production of eggs and(or) meat for human food (. . . also for other purposes though!).

B e.g., Chickens, turkeys, pigeons, peafowl, ducks, geese, upland game birds (quail, pheasant, partridges . . .) and ratites (ostriches, emu . . .).

Commercial Poultry Production/Industry

A. Has been an innovator and applicator of advancing technology and knowledge to keep meat and egg prices relatively constant for decades.

B. Feed? Feed cost is the largest single item in poultry production & accounts for 60 to 75% of the total production cost . . . from hatching eggs to processing plant.

1) Much emphasis has been placed on least-cost feed formulation and getting the lowest feed cost per unit of salable product.

2) To do so, necessary to refine energy and nutrient requirements, disease control, genetic improvement, and housing & equipment.

3) All those efforts led to steady improvements in growth rate, feed conversion, and livability under intensive commercial conditions.

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

The following six classes of nutrients are essential to life, growth, production and reproduction in all classes of poultry. Nature supplies most of these essentials in the form of pasture, bugs and insects, gravel, grains and seeds, sunshine, etc. Indoor feeding of young or adult poultry, places full responsibility on the attendant to supply these same requirements in some form or another and in adequate but not excessive amounts.

1. WATER: Birds can live longer without food than without water. Lack of a consistent supply of fresh water hinders the growth of young poultry; it leads to low egg production and early molting in the laying flock.

2. PROTEIN: This is usually the most expensive feed material, but the one most likely to bring profitable results if properly used. Protein from animal sources – milk, liver, fish scraps, meat or meat meal – is more effective in promoting growth and egg production, than protein from most vegetable sources. Grains alone are entirely inadequate in amount and kind of protein. Excess protein has a forcing effect which may be detrimental to poultry of any age.

3. CARBOHYDRATES: These are the starchy materials in grains and grain products. Only a starved flock will lack for carbohydrates. They supply fuel and energy, the excess going to form fat in the body or egg.

4. FATS: Some fat is present in practically all feed materials. An excess of fat from fish oil or meat and fish products may cause digestive upset in birds, and lead to such disorders as fatty degeneration and “crazy chick disease”.

5. MINERALS: Calcium carbonate (from limestone or gravel, clam or oyster shells, bone, etc) in the presence of Vitamin D, forms most of the egg shell. Calcium and phosphorous make up the major part of bone; but excess phosphorous (from bone materials) may immobilize the manganese in the diet, leading to crooked bones and slipped tendons in chicks and poults. Salt supplies some essential minerals. Green feed contains small amounts of certain highly important minerals.

6. VITAMINS: The naturally speedy growth of young poultry soon reveals any vitamin deficiencies in their rations; hatching of eggs is a critical test of the vitamin content of a breeder diet. Most commonly lacking in Manitoba diets are:

(1) Vitamin A (from green feed, yellow corn and fish oils). Vitamin A protects against colds and infections.

(2) Vitamin D (in marine fish oils and synthetic products, or formed in body when exposed to ultra-violet rays of sun). Vitamin D aids in laying down of mineral in shell or bone, and in preventing leg weakness and rickets.

(3) Riboflavin (in milk, liver, yeast, green feed, synthetic riboflavin, etc.). Riboflavin promotes the growth of chicks and poults, both in the egg and after hatching; hence it is one of the most important factors in hatchability. Riboflavin prevents nutritional or curled-toe paralysis in young chicks.

Feed Ingredients and Additives

A. Corn and soybean meal – Usually the most plentiful and lowest-cost sources of energy and well-balanced protein, thus extensively used, especially in the US.

B. Fish meals and meat meals – Good sources of protein and amino acids, and also contain bone, which is a source of highly available Ca and P. Add 2 to 5% of the diet depending on their prices.

C. Ca & P – Major minerals. Only 30 to 40% of plant P is non-phytin P, which is available to poultry. Should either increase the availability somehow or supplement with inorganic sources.

D. Salt – 0.2 to 0.5% is added to most poultry diets.

E. Supplemental lipids (up to 5% of the diet) – May increase energy utilization through a reduced passage rate an others? Also, can reduce the heat increment.

F. Yellow pigmentation – Use as much yellow corn as possible plus good sources of xanthophyll, such as alfalfa meal or corn gluten meal, for the yellow coloration of the shanks, feet, skin, and egg yolks?

G. Non-nutritive additives are used for a variety of reasons – e.g., antibiotics (to stimulate growth & control diseases), arsenicals and nitrofurans (to improve performance), antiparasitic compounds, antioxidative, and antifungal compounds

Vitamins

Vitamin D – Expressed in ICU, which are based on the activity of D3 because birds do not use D2. (Turkeys are especially sensitive!)

Vitamin E – Requirements vary greatly depending on dietary lipids, Se, and antioxidant.

Some vitamins that were thought to be adequate in feeds and feed ingredients in the past, but may be questioned? – Perhaps, associated with the processing method (e.g., the use of expanders in mills for steam-conditioning feed to reduce/eliminate Salmonella)?

1) Folacin and biotin – Now added to some turkey diets to prevent the deficiency.

2) Niacin – May be required for laying and breeding hens. But, the requirement is so low that it will always be exceeded by natural feed ingredients?

 Choline:

1) Growing chickens can use betaine interchangeably with choline for the methylation function, but it cannot replace choline to prevent perosis. Still, can spare choline!

2) Also, vitamin B12 can reduce the choline requirement.

Minerals

A. See some comments for vitamins in general and the table containing the recommended supplemental trace minerals (per pound of mixed feed; Waldroup, 2001).

B. Ca – Perhaps, more difficult one to define the requirement, and the problem cannot be solved by simply adding a generous amount simply because excess Ca interferes with utilization of P, Mg, Mn, and Zn and it can reduce palatability of the diet.

C. Inorganic P – A greater availability vs. phytin P, but some variations in the availability.

D. The use of phytase in poultry diets has been increasing in recent years.

E. Trace minerals – Ones complexed with amino acids or protein have increased in commercial use in recent years because of higher availability, e.g., Zn-Met & Se-Met.

4. Unidentified Nutrients?

A. With the identification of vitamins & considering some findings on the essentiality or significance of some trace mineral elements, many are disregarding the importance of so called, “unidentified growth factors.”

Some Additives (Briefly mentioned some in the Introduction)

A. Antibiotics – Since 1950 or so, several antibiotics have become important additives in broiler and market turkey feeds to improve growth rate and feed efficiency. Also, egg production may be improved with dietary supplementation.

B. Antioxidants – Compounds used to prevent oxidative rancidity in fat, e.g., BHT, BHA & ethoxyquin.

C. Grits – Hard insoluble or soluble particles, which remain trapped in the thick-muscled gizzard to facilitate grinding of feed. e.g., oyster or clam shells, limestone, gravel, pebbles or granite products. When mash or finely ground feeds are used, the value of grits is diminished.

D. Xanthophylls – Produce a deep yellow color in the beak, skin, shanks, feet, fat, and egg yolks of poultry. Many consumers believe that a deep yellow color of broiler skin/shanks and egg yolks is indicative of top quality.

Orchid Cultivation

ORCHIDS, the most beautiful flowers in god’s creation, comprise a unique group of plants. Taxonomically, they represent the most highly evolved family among monocotyledons with 600-800 genera and 25,000-35,000 species . Orchids exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of their flowers. They are most pampered of the plants and occupy top position among all the flowering plants valued for cut flower production and as potted plants. They are known for their longer lasting and bewitchingly beautiful flowers which fetch a very high price in the international market.

CHOOSING AN ORCHID

Choosing an orchid for the first time can be daunting. These pages can give you some information to help you learn how to choose an orchid that is right for your circumstances and the environment that you can provide.

When you choose an orchid it is important to pay attention to the place you purchase the orchid. It is important to be choosy when acquiring orchids from places that have large quantities of orchids. The high supply of orchids does not necessarily mean that they will be the best. On the contrary it is better to purchase from known reputable orchid growers rather than the cheaper big box type stores.

Important factors to consider when growing orchids

LIGHT

Indirect sunlight is ideal for orchids. Seedlings requires less than adult plants. Very poor light tends to produce weak plants and retards flowering. A plant which has been grown in shades should be gradually be shifted to sunlight conditions. The optimum requirement of light varies between species to species. Cypripedium and Phalaenopsis require only 200-300 foot candles. Whereas genera like Vanda and Aranda thrive best under 800 foot-candles. Majority of orchids are day neutral and are not influenced by day length. But in Cattleya both short-day and long-day plants are met with. Usually in the growing areas of Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore growers have used shade nets in 35% to 85% shade percentage to grow orchids of different genera.

WATERING

One of the two top items in growing orchids for beginners is Water. The other is Light. Orchid house plants and orchid plants in general will need watering periodically; usually you can water once a week. Remember, most orchids are air plants and this means you will see their roots. Their root system and the pseudbulbs are very efficient in storing water.

Here is a watering guide you can use: Cattleya, Oncidium and Dendrobium orchids like to dry out between watering. An easy way to water is to put the plant in the sink and let water flow through the plant for about 20-30 seconds. Remember, let the water drain from the plant before putting it back into the decorative pot. Phalaenopsis orchids like to almost dry out between watering. To decide on the next watering is to stick your finger about or a wooden pencil an inch into the medium which should feel spongy and not bone dry.

Growing orchids like Paphiopedilum and Epidendrum should be slightly moist so that watering can be twice a week.

HUMIDITY

If the humidity in your home is low (below 40%) you may need to either mist the plant occasionally or use a humidity tray. The tray is simply a metal or plastic tray that is filled with pebbles and 1/2 of water. The plant would sit would sit on the pebbles. Be sure not to let the plant or roots sit in the water while on the tray. Check out the page on humidity trays for a very cool way to handle humidity for your orchids.

Pots / Container

Orchids should be potted in small container/spots according to the size of the plants. As a thumb rule, orchids should be under potted to get more flowers. Any kind of pot/container which can hold medium and provide aeration is suitable. Most of the people prefer plastic pots which retain moisture longer than mud pots. Vandaceous and Sarcenthene orchids can be grown in teak-wood baskets. Orchid plants should not be disturbed frequently and repotting done only when absolutely necessary.

Orchids like Cymbidium, react favorably when repotted after 2-3 years whereas Vandeceous orchids and Paphiopedilum should not be disturbed unless very necessary.

Terrestrial orchids, like Spathoglottis, Phaius and Calanthe, should be grown in 20-25 cm pots with 1:1:1 mixture of leaf mould, FYM and sand. For Paphiopedilum A mixture of 2 parts leaf mould, 2 parts loam soil and 1 part each of brick pieces and charcoal is recommended. Experiments conducted at Botanical Survey Of India, Calcutta, have revealed that in case of Rhychostylis gigantea, chunks of hard-wood charcoal alone as potting substance were superior then eleven other potting media. Tree fern fiber also performed better than the other media while coconut husk and over-burnt brick as planting substance had adverse effects on growth and flowering of R. gigentea plants. Some latest media tried for growing orchids are gravel jelly, fir bark, tree fern fiber and polyurethane foam.

WHAT ABOUT TEMPERATURE?

Most orchids do well in normal house temperature. The low temperature at night do not impede the growth. Here is a little guide you can use. Growing orchids for beginners should understand that there needs to be fluctuation in temperatures in order for the plants to bloom. For example,  there should be about 10 degree fluctuation for Cattleyas between the day and night temps. So, hopefully this is a good start for you for growing orchids for beginners. If this is of interest then go to the Frequently Asked Questions page. There I have written answers to the most Frequently Asked Questions. There is lots of great free information there for new and not so new orchid growers.

Manuring

In nature, orchids obtain their supply of inorganic nutrients like calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium, nitrogen and traces of manganese, boron, copper, zinc etc. from the tree on which they are growing and also from atmosphere and decaying vegetables and dropping of birds. However under controlled conditions they have to be supplied with all these major and minor nutrients. Taking into consideration the special need of different orchids, a large number of fertilizer mixtures, both solid and liquid, are available in market. Liquid fertilizers are much more quickly absorbed and can be applied more frequently. As the orchids are slow growing, slow release fertilizers like osmocote can be used to get very good result. Usage of fertilizers should also depend on stage of growth. During vegetative growth, large quantities of nitrogen are required while during flowering, nitrogen should be reduced and amount of phosphate increased.

We have been getting excellent results by using slow release fertilizer mixtures ( NPK 20:20:20 ) with trace elements and coconut water (20-25 %) applied every week for three successive weeks followed by a 10:20:30 (NPK).

In general, pH of the nutrient solution should be slightly acidic or neutral but not alkaline

Diseases and Pests

FUNGAL AND BACTERIAL DISEASES

Leaf spot – caused by Colletotrichum and Gleosporium

Leaf blight – caused by Pythium

Collar blotch – caused by Penicilium thomii

Collar rot – caused by Sclerotium

Orchid wilt – caused by Sclerotium rolfsli

Various fungicides like Captan, Dithane, Agrosan and Ceresan are very effective against these diseases.

VIRUS DISEASES

More than 32 diseases are known to occur on orchids. In some cases the same virus has been known to produce more than one diseases in different species, the most common are Cymbidium mosaic virus.

As control measures all infected plants should be isolated to prevent spreading of the disease.

The most commonly reported insects pests on orchids are thrips, aphids, spider mite, soft scale, mealy bugs, orchid weevil, snail and slugs. These insects’ pests harm the plants in many ways. They feed on tender young shoot, suck the sap and damage the young bud and shoot and also act as the carrier of different diseases. Fortunately all these can be controlled by effective insecticides like Parathion, Malathion, BHC, Aldrin, Dieldrin, etc. Metaldehyde has proved to be very effective in killing slugs and snails

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Cuttings.

Orchids like Aerides, Arachnis, Epidendrum, Renanthera, Phalaenopsis, Vanda and Dendrobium can be propagated by cutting. Orchids cutting are usually more bigger and should posseses one or more roots. Cutting are usually potted in propagation beds or directly in pots after treating the cut ends with fungicides to prevent rotting.

Cutting of genera, like Aerides, Arachnis, Vanda etc., are very hardy and can be directly potted in pots, whereas those of dendrobium and Phalaenopsis need special care to root and should be potted in propagation beds.

The propagation of orchids through cuttings is getting popular again and some of the nursery men like to propagate their orchids through cuttings to get uniform plants. The percentage of variation through this method is almost nill as compared to in vitro propagation through tissue culture. Further some orchids like Anaectochilus respond more to vegetative propagation through cutting than any other method.

Most of the sympodial orchids, like Coelogyne, Cattleya, Dendrobium and Cymbidium, are propogated through this method. The method involved consists of dividing large clumps into smaller units. However care should be taken not to divide the plants unless there are 8-10 pseudo-bulbs. Dendrobiums which are very fast growing can be divide every year.

Off-shoots and Keikis

In some monopodial orchids like Ascocenda and Phalaenopsis, Keikis or off-shoots emerge frequently on the main stem.. This usually happens when the apex has lost its effectiveness in suppressing axillary buds. In most of the commercial orchid nurseries topping of the stem is commonly practiced to induce Keikis formation.

Induction of Keikis can also be induced through the use of cytokinins which force the dormant bud to develop into keikis.

Aerial shoots

Most of the dendrobiums produce aerial shoots or bulbs on old back bulbs devoid of leaves. They usually arise on the upper part of the back bulbs and grow out slowly. These aerial shoots take 90-120 days to develop roots. At this stage, they are detached along with the portion of back bulb and potted as independent plant.

In genera like Goodyera, Rhizomes gives off special lateral branches which turn up and produce aerial shoots. When they are properly rooted they get detached from the mother plant and establish separately.

SWINE CARE PRACTICES

INTRODUCTION

There are at least two reasons to give pigs proper care. One is an ethical concern for the pig’s well-being. Another is production efficiency.

Management practices that incorporate good animal care are usually also the most effective from a production standpoint. When pigs receive good care, production costs per pound of pork produced are less than when pigs are not well cared for.

If certain management practices conflict with the well-being of the animals, it will be to the producer’s long-term advantage to adopt practices that put the animals’ welfare ahead of short-term cost savings.

Science has not yet provided all the answers we need to fully understand animal needs, and it may never be possible, or practical, to meet the theoretical limits of pig welfare. However, past research and years of practical experiences have provided a wealth of information that can be applied across a wide variety of pork production systems.

This publication is designed to help producers evaluate their husbandry procedures with respect to the well-being of their animals and to offer production practices that are both ethically acceptable and cost efficient.

STRESS

Stress is a significant animal welfare concern.1 An animal is stressed if it is required to make abnormal or extreme adjustments in its physiology or behavior to cope with adverse aspects of its environment or management.2 Identifying and minimizing stressful situations in pork production improves the well-being of the animal, reproductive efficiency, and growth as well as economic benefits for the producers and consumers. Stress from the environmental and management aspects of pork production may be classified into four categories.

* Thermal: Thermal stress factors include temperature (heat and cold), humidity, wind, and solar radiation.

* Physical: The physical components of a pig’s environment include the space available and the surfaces with which the pig comes in contact.

* Disease: Environments (including care, facilities, nutrition, and management) should be designed and maintained to minimize the onset and spread of disease.

* Behavioral: Most forms of normal behavior should be exhibited in carefully designed environments.

Stress, pain, or suffering may be recognized by the following:

* Increased susceptibility to disease

* Lack of appetite

* Retardation of normal growth

* Abnormal posture

* Restlessness

* Elevated respiration rate

* Lameness or alteration of gait

* Dull or depressed attitude

* Abnormal grunting or squealing

* Self isolation from penmates

Some pork production practices (e.g., vaccination, castration, weaning, tail docking) can be short-term stressors. However, they provide long-term health and management benefits to individual pigs and their herd mates. Swine producers have responsibility for evaluating their husbandry procedures with respect to short-term and long-term well- being of their pigs and the total management plan.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Behavior

Pigs have very good frontal vision but poor peripheral vision. This is the reason they often are difficult to move and become upset easily. Producers can facilitate movement and handling of their pigs by taking a few precautions. One method is to have the pig heading in the direction of desired travel before attempting to move it. Also, pigs are gregarious and move better in groups.

Small square plywood panels are effective portable barriers when moving pigs. Loading chutes should be approximately 20 inches wide (width of one pig). This prevents the pig from turning back and guards against injury. Facilities designed for easy movement of pigs are good investments.

All classes and groups of pigs form an order of social dominance. These orders are formed by competition soon after birth, or when the pigs are first grouped together. Adding new pigs or regrouping pigs will usually lead to struggles until a new social order is established.

Regrouping should be minimized to reduce stress. When regrouping is necessary, it should be done during the cool of the day in a pen or other area new to both groups. Younger pigs adjust to new groupings more easily than older pigs. Avoid regrouping pregnant females to prevent potential harm to unborn pigs. Adult boars that have not been living together should not be regrouped because of possible injury or death from intense competition and struggles.

Practices Related to Production Systems

Since pigs are kept in a variety of production systems, management techniques will vary. Each system requires a degree of management sufficient for the pigs to experience a reasonable level of comfort and well-being. Particular practices to be noted include the following:

* The daily care schedule should be consistent enough to allow the pigs to develop a routine.

* Extremes in climatic changes should be anticipated as much as possible so appropriate provisions can be made to modify wide environmental variations.

* Swine care personnel must take precautions against the transmission of pathogens between pens and between facilities. Disinfectant foot baths used by personnel moving between buildings or premises are important to reduce disease transmission.

* Pigs should be closely observed and their well-being assessed at least once, and preferably twice, each day.

* When feed is delivered to swine housing or individual pens, care should be taken to minimize dust.

* Pens should be kept clean to provide for the comfort and health of the pigs. If pigs are kept on concrete or other solid flooring, daily scraping or washing of manure may be necessary. Slotted floors or flushing gutters will minimize the need for this labor-intensive practice and aid in keeping pens clean.

Breeding

Females can be bred to farrow at any time of the year. Piglets born in the fall and spring require fewer environmentally controlled facilities because of usually moderate weather.

Most gilts (young females) display their first heat (estrus) at five to eight months of age. It is suggested that gilts be bred on the third observed heat period to allow for additional growth and an increased ovulation rate. Gilts should be mated to boars of small to moderate size to prevent injury during mating.

Four to seven days after piglets are weaned, sows usually display a fertile heat and can be bred. Breeding should be delayed if unfavorable conditions exist, e.g. thin body condition or very hot weather.

Sows may be housed individually or in groups during the breeding period. When sows are grouped, individual feed areas may be advisable to eliminate competition during feeding.

Yearling and mature boars should be housed individually because of their intense desire for social dominance which causes aggressive behavior.

Breeding Systems.

There are four common breeding systems in pork production: pen mating, individual mating, hand mating, and artificial insemination. Pen (unobserved) mating utilizes one boar with a group of sows. For each group of ten sows, use one mature boar (over one year of age) per 21-day breeding period. Decrease the ratio to 4 to 6 sows for each young boar (less than one year of age). Individual mating involves one sow and one boar in a pen, and the mating is generally unobserved. Hand mating occurs when a boar and a sow or gilt are placed together, and the mating is observed. Artificial insemination uses either frozen semen which is thawed before insemination or fresh semen collected from boars and used immediately or preserved for short periods of time with extenders. Artificial insemination reduces the possibility of injury during breeding to both the sow or gilt and the boar.

The mature boar should not breed more than two females a day. Sows may be bred twice daily for as long as they will accept a boar in hand-mating systems. Each of these breeding systems, when appropriately managed, is acceptable. Attention must be given to preventing fighting and injuries. Breeding difficulties are reduced if males and females are similar in size.

Farrowing

As the sow approaches farrowing time, several management practices should be carried out to improve survival and well-being of the newborn pigs. Farrowing environments should be cleaned and thoroughly disinfected before the pregnant sow is allowed to enter. Sows are normally placed in their farrowing area three to five days before the estimated date of delivery. Before farrowing, sows should be treated for internal and external parasites to keep the newborn pigs free of lice, ticks, and worms. Any vaccinations should be scheduled well in advance of the farrowing date to allow the accumulation of desired antibodies in the colostrum.

Approximately 24 hours before farrowing, the female will appear nervous and may exhibit signs of nest building. Pawing motions with the front feet are a nest building sign shown by sows or gilts in confined farrowing areas. Small amounts of straw or shavings placed in the area will help satisfy the nest building desire. Twelve hours before farrowing, milk may appear in the udder; however, gilts may not show signs of milk as soon as sows. Some producers closely attend the sow at farrowing time, while others check periodically to be sure there are no problems. Attention, care, and observation are beneficial to the well-being of both the sow and her pigs.

Several distinct events take place during the farrowing process. Two to six hours before the first pig is born, labor will begin and the sow’s respiration rate will increase. Once the first pig is born, the remainder of the litter will usually be born in one to four hours. Factors which usually affect the interval between the first and last pig born include the size of the litter and the number of litters the sow has previously delivered. The end of farrowing is signaled by the delivery of the placental membranes (afterbirth). If more than one hour elapses between pigs or between the last pig born and passing of the placental membranes, assistance may be needed.

During the farrowing process, keeping the sow quiet and maintaining quiet surroundings are important. The sow will remain calmer if attendants stay behind her. Noises, dogs, strangers, and other distractions must be minimized. Every effort should be expended to make the sow comfortable and at ease.

Draft-free environments are very important during farrowing because newborn pigs have a poor ability to regulate their own body temperature. After the pigs are born, they can be dried off by rubbing them with shavings, cloths, or paper towels. Then place them at the sow’s udder and, if necessary, help them begin nursing. Nursing stimulates the release of the hormone oxytocin (needed for milk letdown, uterine contractions, and calming) into the sow’s system. This hormone reduces the total time in labor and promotes pig welfare. A restless sow can sometimes be calmed by rubbing her udder to simulate nursing. If the sow is excited and cannot be calmed, it may be necessary to remove the pigs for their protection until farrowing is completed. Gilts, in particular, may sometimes eat or lie on their young.

To maintain the 90oF comfort zone (Table 4, Environment) for newborn pigs, it may be necessary to provide supplemental heat through heat lamps or heat pads specially designed for swine farrowing areas. Do not use ordinary household heating pads. Hovers, designed to capture body heat, may also be used to keep the newborn pigs warm while still maintaining a cooler environment for the sow.

Floriculture Industry in Sri Lanka

Introduction

The Asian flower industry has the potential to become the leading flower industry in commercial floriculture worldwide. Looking to the future, the Asian flower industry could rival, if not surpass, the size and scope of the European flower industry which presently dominates global commercial floriculture.

Opportunities for Cut Flower Development in Asia – Markets

There is considerable opportunity in both export and domestic markets for cut flowers from southern Asia. In case of export markets, it seems reasonable to set short, middle, and long term goals with respect to entering these markets. Simultaneously, efforts to develop domestic markets within and among countries in Southeast Asia should be undertaken.

Goals for Establishing Domestic Markets within Southeast Asia

Similar to establishing export markets for cut flowers from Southeast Asia, focusing on improving transportation is a key factor to establishing distribution into domestic markets within and among Southeast Asian countries. It is proposed that distribution between these countries may be improved if a transportation hub system were enacted. Also, in the case of developing domestic markets, it is likely that efforts to add or improve wholesale markets in major cities would facilitate greater distribution of cut flowers within these countries.

Opportunities for Cut Flower Development in Asia – Production

Opportunities for cut flower development in Asia with respect to production are not location dependent, meaning that any area of Southeast Asia should be able to capture significant cut flower production opportunity if pursued. In present and future commercial floriculture markets, production opportunities exist if the goal to reliably produce high quality product in consistent quantities can be attained.

To reliably produce high quality cut flowers in consistent quantities requires optimum production management. Production management strategies for implementation and training of personnel will be different for different types of production operations. Varying types of production operations might be commercial cut flower companies, large or small; government directed agricultural farming communities; or rural development programs managed by public or private funds. For each of these types of production operations, dissemination of pertinent information needed to manage production may require different strategies. Therefore, a key factor to realizing production opportunities is education. Ideally, educational resources should be developed and supported by public and private sectors.

An example of educational resources which could be critical to the success of implementing optimum production management for cut flower enterprise in Asia would be a training center/demonstration showcase of production technology adapted to local growing conditions for specific cut flower crops. This educational institution or organization could facilitate dissemination of information to management at cut flower operations or provide training of technical personnel involved in cut flower operations.

Enlisting the support of floriculture professionals from outside and within Asia to coordinate activities in research and education for the purpose of furthering floriculture development in Asia would have significant impact on the pace and scope of cut flower development in Asia. Formally organized, it would be possible to solicit funds through international agencies to support an institution set up for this purpose, i.e. International Center for Floriculture in Asia.

Departments related to production and marketing management for cut flower crops would be defined in order to reliably produce high quality cut flowers in consistent quantities regardless of the location in southeast Asia. Such departments could be:

• Cultural production, information and management.
• Postharvest production, information and management.
• Equipment use, design, and engineering.
• Genetic improvement of cut flower varieties.
• Consumer marketing.

CUT FLOWER PRODUCTION IN SRI LANKA

Introduction

Cultivation of flowers for various religious and cultural festivals has existed in Sri Lanka for ages. It was only after the British rule that floriculture really came into practice not as an industry but mainly as a hobby for pleasure. Later, with many new introductions of tropical and sub tropical plants the trend was gradually passed down to other levels of society.

Floriculture in Sri Lanka started as an industry in 1970. It has grown substantially during the last few years to become one of Sri Lanka’s major foreign exchange generating ventures.

Present Situation of Cut Flower Production

Western, North Western and Central Provinces in Sri Lanka are the major areas where cut flowers are grown commercially. Cut flowers grown in the country can be divided into two main categories based on their temperature requirements i.e. Temperate Cut Flowers and Tropical Cut Flowers.

Temperate Cut Flowers: Temperate cut flowers include carnation, rose, statice, gypsophyla, alstroemeria, chrysanthemum, lilies and irises. Among them, carnations and roses are grown mainly for export, in the highlands of the Central Province of Sri Lanka. Carnations are produced entirely from imported planting materials and are graded according to internationally accepted specifications for export. The other species are commercially grown mainly for the local market.

American and Mediterranean carnation cultivars are quite famous in the world market. Pink, white, red, yellow and salmon colors are much popular. Novelties such as striped and frosted types are also becoming increasingly popular. American cultivars grown are silvery pink, Karina, Barbara, red Barron, Elsie, royalette, bagatalle, Bianca and adelfie. Mediterranean cultivars grown are Nora barlo, shainah, lena, castellaro, scania, tanga, roma, pallas and charmeur. Carnations are grown in poly tunnels, covering more than 10 hectares, under fully protected environments.

Roses are second to carnations and production is limited to about 40,000 blossoms per annum. This is mainly due to the highly expert conditions required for cultivation and production. Approximately 2-3 hectares of area have so far been used for cultivation of roses. Roses for the export market are grown under controlled environments in poly tunnels. Popular colors are highly variable. They are generally required in a mix and an acceptable mix would consist of red-50%, Pink-30%, yellow-10% and others 10%. Roses are quite popular in the local market also. Most of them are supplied by small scale growers.

Tropical Cut Flowers: Anthuriums and Orchids are the most popular tropical cut flowers which are being grown commercially for exports as well as for the local market. Anthuriums can be grown at elevations up to 1500 meters above sea level, with texture and the flossiness remarkably enhanced with increase in elevation. Annual production of anthuriums is around 3 million flowers, the majority of which are sold at the local market. The exports of Anthuriums at present are not very significant. A land area of approximately 10 hectares is under Anthurium cultivation at present and the industry is expanding steadily at village level. Almost all plantations are either under poly tunnels or structures with shade netting.

Tropical Orchids can be grown under warm humid conditions up to 500 meters above sea level. Climatic conditions in the Western Province are quite favorable for cultivation of Dendrobiums, Vandas and Phalaenopsis types which are quite popular in the local and foreign markets. Approximately 3-4 hectares of land are under Orchid cultivation at present and the industry is gradually developing to cater to export markets. Almost all cultivations are under shade netting and the majority of growers have developed mist irrigation techniques. ‘Madam Pompadour’ (Pink and White), and ‘Rena Vapahoo’ (Pink and White) hybrids are some of the popular hybrid Dendrobiums in the market. Hybrids of Arachnis, Oncidiums, Phalaenopsis and Dendrobiums are being exported in smaller quantities and the income earned is not very significant.

Gerberas are becoming popular among growers due to the availability of a wide range of long lasting cultivars produced by many modern breeding methods and tissue culture. These cultivars can be broadly categorized into three classes, namely Singles (such as ‘Fleur’ and ‘Apple Blossom’), Doubles (such as ‘Marleen’ and ‘Hildegard’), and Black Centers (such as ‘Fabio’ and ‘Rosetta’). Pink, salmon, orange, red and yellow are the popular colors in the market. Trials have already been started under controlled environments by private entrepreneurs to grow gerberas for the export market. About 2 hectares of land is so far being used for gerberas.

Marketing

Thus far the cut flower market in Sri Lanka has not been able to create Auction Centers as many other countries have done. Retail outlets scattered through the production areas are the popular centers where cut flowers are sold. There are few growers who have created cooperative systems to sell their products.

Exporting of cut flowers is done by a few societies which have a selected group of partners and farmers. In many instances the agents are sent to villages to collect flowers from farmers directly. Exports of floriculture products from Sri Lanka are shown in Table 1. Main export markets are Europe (72%), and Far East and Middle East (28%).

Constraints in Cut Flower Production Development

The following are the major constraints being faced by the majority of growers:

a) Inadequacy and high cost of air cargo: Air Lanka, the national carrier has always given priority to perishable cargo. However, the available capacity is not sufficient.

b) Lack of facilities for research and development: So far only the Royal Botanic Garden, Peradeniya has been involved in providing assistance by and large to the middle and village level growers, but this is negligible when compared to the ever increasing demands of the industry.

c) Lack of trained personnel: The floriculture industry requires trained personnel at each level of production. Education programs from schools up to University level and training institutes to conduct courses on high-tech practical skills in floriculture are essential for the development of the industry.

d) Big initial investment on farms: Duty free facilities for import of vital items not produced in Sri Lanka such as shade nets, uv stabilised polythene, irrigation and fertilizing systems etc. would help to promote the industry.

e) Lack of improved systems of marketing: Lack of proper or organized systems for marketing and inadequacy of current international market information on prices, trends, volumes and data on competitive countries etc, severely affect the development of the industry.

f) The uneconomical size of floriculture industry: Difficulty in acquiring suitable land and lack of infrastructure facilities also adversely affect the industry.

g) Lack of information on pesticides: Current information on pesticides and their acceptance in various countries is essential.

h) Phytosanitary clearance: Phytosanitary inspection just prior to shipment is inconvenient and expensive, besides leaving no time to rectify any problems.

Identifying Aquatic Insects

Mayfly (Order: Ephemeroptera)

Habitat of Nymph: Fresh running water of ponds and streams.

Habitat of Adult: Short lived flying insect that mates and then dies.

Characteristics:

Distinguished from other nymphs by seven pairs of gills along the abdomen. Oxygen is absorbed from water. Nymphs generally have three tails attached to the end of the abdomen. Wing pads are visible on the nymph. Nymphs feed on live and decaying vegetation. Nymphs are a common food source for trout and other fish. Mayfly nymphs require 4 to 10 ppm of dissolved oxygen for survival. Nymphs are up to 2.5 cm long. They have three pairs of segmented legs with one claw at the end of each leg.

Dragonfly (Order: Odonata)

Habitat of Nymph: Ponds marshes and slow moving streams.

Habitat of Adult: Fast flying insect.

Characteristics:

Distinguished by large compound eyes with nearly 360-degree vision in both the nymph and adult stage. Nymphs have “lips” hinged in two places with grasping pincers on the end for catching prey. Brown and green bodies tend to provide camouflage and allow the nymph to blend in with the aquatic habitat of plants and pond bottoms. Gills inside the abdomen obtain oxygen. Water drawn into the abdomen and through the gills is expelled to propel the nymph through the water.

Dragonfly nymphs require 4 to 8 ppm of dissolved oxygen for survival. They have three pairs of segmented legs on upper part (thorax) of body. Dragonfly larvae can be distinguished from damselfly larvae by a wide to oval abdomen that may end in wedge shaped extensions. Nymphs are predators and feed on mollusks, other insects, crustaceans, worms, and small fish. Nymphs are a food source for some fish.

Damselfly (Order: Odonata; Suborder: Zygoptera)

Habitat of Nymph: Ponds, marshes, and slow moving streams.

Habitat of Adult: Fast flying insect.

Characteristics:

In the same order as dragonflies and similar to dragonflies but generally smaller and more delicate. Distinguished by large compound eyes with nearly 360-degree vision in both the nymph and adult stage. Nymphs have “lips” hinged in two places with grasping pincers on the end for catching prey. Brown and green bodies tend to provide camouflage and allow the nymph to blend in with the aquatic habitat of plants and pond bottoms. Three leaf-like gills at the base of the abdomen obtain oxygen. Damselfly nymphs require 4 to 8 ppm of dissolved oxygen for survival. Damselfly nymphs can be distinguished from dragonfly nymphs by a narrow body with three gills extending in a tripod formation at the end of body. The three pairs of legs are long and spindly. Nymphs are predators and feed on mollusks, other insects, crustaceans, worms, and small fish. Nymphs are a food source for some fish.

Water Strider (Order: Hemiptera)

Habitat of Nymph: Ponds and slow moving streams.

Habitat of Adult: Ponds and slow moving streams.

Characteristics:

Water striders appear to skate across the water surface. Their legs can pick up vibrations of other organisms. Oxygen is absorbed by spiracles or specialized holes in their skin surface.

Giant Water Bug (Order: Hemiptera; Family: Belostomatidae)

Habitat of Nymph: Ponds and slow moving streams.

Habitat of Adult: Ponds and slow moving streams.

Characteristics:

The Giant Water Bug gets oxygen through a snorkel like breathing tube that extends to the water surface. They have three pairs of jointed legs. The front pair has a modified hook for catching and holding prey. Giant Water Bugs may be up to 8 cm in size. True predators in the aquatic environment, Giant Water Bugs will attack preys that are 20 times larger in size.

Water Scorpion (Order: Hemiptera; Family: Nepidae)

Habitat of Nymph: Ponds and slow moving streams.

Habitat of Adult: Ponds and slow moving streams.

Characteristics:

Water Scorpions get oxygen through long breathing tubes at the base of the abdomen. They look more like sticks than like insects. They are up to 10 cm in length. They have three pairs of jointed legs. The front pair has a set of single hooks for capturing and holding prey.

Water Boatman (Order: Hemiptera)

Habitat of Nymph: Ponds, running water of streams and intertidal marshes.

Habitat of Adult: Ponds, running water of streams and intertidal marshes.

Characteristics:

Water Boatmen have middle and hind legs covered with long swimming hairs. They eat decaying matter as well as other animals. Because they rely on atmospheric oxygen many species are tolerant of pollution and can live in oxygen-poor environments. Atmospheric oxygen is trapped as an air bubble (or plastron) beneath microscopic hairs.

Backswimmer (Order: Hemiptera)

Habitat of Nymph: Ponds, running water of streams and intertidal marshes.

Habitat of Adult: Ponds, running water of streams and intertidal marshes.

Characteristics:

Backswimmers have middle and hind legs covered with long swimming hairs like water boatman but swim on their back.

INFECTIOUS CATTLE DISEASES

I. SUDDEN DEATH

A) Clostridial diseases:

These diseases include Blackleg, Malignant Edema, Black’s Disease, Enterotoxaemia and Red water. All of these are common diseases. The organisms form spores that may survive a long time in hostile environments and yet kill cattle quickly, giving little opportunity for treatment. The vaccines produce good immunity, but most require two doses initially to really be effective. Some producers give only one Blackleg vaccination to calves and have no losses. Because of the sporadic nature of these diseases, this lack of loss is probably due to a lack of exposure rather than a high level of immunity. With the other clostridial vaccines, the second dose is essential for stimulation of protective immunity (there is one designed as a one-dose vaccine).

B) Anthrax:

This cause of sudden death has occurred in at least three areas in Utah, but is only seen sporadically. The organism will survive indefinitely in the soil and when conditions are right, multiply and cause a disease outbreak. A vaccine is available, but should only be used when cattle are grazed in known problem areas.

II. RESPIRATORY DISEASES

A)  IBR (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis) (Red nose):

A viral infection of the upper respiratory tract. It is present in almost all herds, but causes illness in unexposed animals or those with lowered levels of immunity. Many cattle carry the virus and shed it to others during periods of stress. This agent is commonly implicated with bacterial agents in causing shipping fever and extension.usu.edu other severe cases of pneumonia. (See also Reproductive Diseases). Both MLV (modified live virus) vaccines and killed (or attenuated) products are available.

Some are designed for IM (intramuscular) use while others are given IN (intranasally). The killed and intranasal products may be used in, or around, pregnant cows but other vaccines may cause abortions. The IN vaccines will cause some antibody response within three days and may be useful even in the face of an outbreak. Two doses of a killed product must be used to confer protective immunity. All replacement animals should be vaccinated. For intensively managed herds, annual boosters are recommended.

B)   PI3 (Parainfluenza-3):

Another viral respiratory agent that causes a relatively mild disease by itself, but a severe problem when combined with a bacterial agent. It is included with most IBR vaccines and can be used on the same schedule.

C) BVD (Bovine Virus Diarrhea): A common viral agent, present in almost all herds. It may cause respiratory, digestive tract or reproductive problems. It has a profound detrimental affect on the immune system.

A number of MLV vaccines have been available. Killed vaccines are also available which stimulate a good immune response in adult animals. But, they are apparently not able to protect the fetus. Two doses are required initially. All replacement animals should be vaccinated with an MLV vaccine (perhaps even two doses), after 6 months of age and prior to breeding. (See also Reproductive Diseases).

C)  BRSV (Bovine Respiratory Syncytial Virus):

A relatively recently recognized disease agent, but now identified all across the country in respiratory infections. It is mainly a problem in weaned and feedlot animals (also young dairy stock). Both MLV and killed virus vaccines are available with two initial doses required for both.

D)  Pasteurella:

A bacteria carried by many normal cattle. It becomes a major cause of severe “shipping fever” pneumonia when combined with stress and a viral agent. Two species are common: P. hemolytica and P. multocida. Vaccines available in the past were poor, with use of a single dose causing more problems than if none were used. Great improvements have been made in recent years and several newer products are available, with more to come. Both one and two dose products are now available. Follow directions carefully for these products to be beneficial. They must usually be given prior to weaning in order to help hold down the occurrence of disease at this critical time.

E)   Haemophilus sommus:

This agent is the other major bacterial agent involved in shipping fever. It also causes “brain fever” in feedlot cattle (also known as TEME: thromboembolic meningioencephalitis). The killed vaccine must be given in two doses initially and should be used prior to weaning for the greatest benefit.

Soil Physical Properties

Mineral soils are porous mixtures of inorganic particles, decaying organic matter, air, and water. They also contain a variety of living organisms. The parent material of mineral soils consists of loose, unconsolidated fragments of weathered rocks or unconsolidated sediments. Physical and chemical weathering, with the translocation and the accumulation of various substances, give rise to a horizontal layering of the soil mass that is frequently visible in trenches and road cuts. Collectively, these horizons or layers are called the soil profile. The characteristics of the layers of the profile affect root growth and the retention and transmission of water in the soil.

Two important physical properties of soils are texture and structure. Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of variously sized groups of mineral particles in a specific soil or horizon. Soil structure refers to the manner in which soil particles are arranged in groups or aggregates. Together, soil texture and soil structure help to determine the supply of water and air in a soil. The inherent characteristics of a soil may be adversely affected by soil compaction. Compaction can extensively modify soil aeration, water retention, transmission properties, root penetration, temperature relations, and the nutritional properties of a soil system.

Soil Texture

Mineral Soil

The variously sized groups of mineral particles in a soil are called separates. The classification of soil separates used by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and their range in diameter size are shown in table 1 – 1. Coarse fragments, larger than 2 millimeters in diameter, are not included.

Table 1 – l .-Range in particle size by texture

Soil separate                                                                 Particle diameter (mm)

Very coarse sand                                                                                       2.0 – 1.0

Coarse sand                                                                                                1.0 – .5

Medium sand                                                                                               .5 – .25

Fine sand                                                                                                       .25 -.1

Very fine sand                                                                                               .I -.05

Silt                                                                                                       .05-.002

Clay Less than                                                                                                .002

*millimeters x 0.03937 = inches

Soil textural classes are based on different combinations of sand, silt, and clay. For some purposes it is necessary to make fine distinctions in texture; the basic classes used in terms of size distribution, as determined by mechanical analysis in the laboratory.

In the field, soil texture can be determined by feeling the soil with the fingers. If necessary, this determination can be checked later in the laboratory. The USDA Soil Survey

Manual includes the following general definitions of soil textural classes in terms of field experience:

Sand.

Sand is loose and single-grained. The individual grains can be seen or felt readily. Squeezed in the hand when dry, sand falls apart when pressure is released. Squeezed when moist, it forms a cast but crumbles when touched.

Sandy Loam

A sandy loam is soil containing a high percentage of sand but having enough silt and clay to make it somewhat coherent. The individual sand grains can be readily seen and felt. Squeezed when dry, a sandy loam forms a cast that falls apart readily. If squeezed when moist, a cast can be formed that bears careful handling without breaking.

Loam.

A loam is soil having a relatively even mixture of different grades of sand, silt, and clay. It is mellow with a somewhat gritty feel but is fairly smooth and slightly plastic. Squeezed when dry, it forms a cast that bears careful handling, and the cast formed by squeezing the moist soil can be handled freely without breaking.

Silt Loam.

A silt loam is soil having a moderate amount of forms a cast that can be handled freely without breaking; fine sand and only a small amount of clay; over half of the when moistened and squeezed between thumb and finger, it particles are of the size called silt. When dry, a silt loam does not ribbon but has a broken appearance. Appears cloddy, but the lumps can be broken readily; when pulverized, it feels soft and floury. When wet, the soil runs

Clay Loam.

A clay loam is a moderately fine-textured soil together readily and puddles. Either dry or moist, silt loam that usually breaks into clods or lumps that are hard when dry. When the moist soil is pinched between the thumb and finger, it forms a thin ribbon that breaks readily, barely sustaining its own weight. The moist soil is plastic and forms a cast that bears much handling. When kneaded in the hand, clay loam does not crumble readily but works into a heavy compact mass.

Clay.

A clay is fine-textured soil that usually forms very hard lumps or clods when dry and is very plastic and usually sticky when wet. When the moist soil is pinched out between the thumb and finger, it forms a long flexible ribbon. Some clay that are very high in colloids are friable and lack plasticity at all conditions of moisture.

Soil Structure

Soil structure is the arrangement and organization of soil particles into natural units of aggregation that soil scientists call peds. Peds are separated from one another by planes of weakness that persist through cycles of wetting and drying in place. Most peds are large enough to be seen without magnification. Structure influences the rate at which water and air enter and move through the soil; it also affects root penetration and the nutrient supply of the soil.

Water moves very slowly through massive soils such as some clays. The more favorable water relations are usually in soils that have prismatic, blocky, and granular structure; platy structure impedes the downward movement of water.

Unlike texture, structure of the soil can be changed to the depth of tillage. Excellent structure develops in the surface layer of soils high in organic matter and on which perennial grass is growing. Cycles of wetting and drying or of freezing and thawing improve structure in the plow layer. On the other hand, cultivation of medium- or fine-textured soils when their moisture content is high tends to destroy structure.

Imation water that contains large amounts of sodium causes very undesirable structure by dispersing the soil aggregates.

Soil Porosity

Soil porosity is affected mostly by soil aggregation, texture, root activity, entrapped gases, and by burrowing insects, worms, and other animals.

Coarse-textured soils tend to be less porous than fine textured soils, but the mean size of individual pores is usually larger in sandy soils. Porosity tends to be more variable in clayey soils because of the potential for swelling and contracting during wetting-drying cycles and the greater ability to either aggregate or disperse.

Pore space in soils can be viewed as a vast interconnecting network of voids extending in all directions. The voids hold liquids and gases and regulate their movement, contain most of the living organisms, and serve as avenues of entry for roots to grow and expand. Total soil porosity can be determined for a soil sample from the equation:

Total porosity = 1 – (bulk density/ average particle density)